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Fletcher - History of architecture on the comparative method, Notas de estudo de Arquitetura

Livro sobre a história da arquitetura por Banister Fletcher. Lingua: Inglês.

Tipologia: Notas de estudo

2012

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Baixe Fletcher - History of architecture on the comparative method e outras Notas de estudo em PDF para Arquitetura, somente na Docsity! a STYLES <? AGE OF GREEK* BYZANTINE, ROMANESQUE , GOTO 1C * RENAISSANCE REVIVALS & V GOTHICS 15 - 15 CENTf _J* /- ' GOTHICS I3-I5CCNT" THE TREE OF ARCHITECTURE, Showing the main growth or evolution of the various styles. The Tree must be taken as suggestive only, for minor influences cannot be indicated in a diagram of this kind. uojgte— . Sauanboro pue size jo Jmpou “ao0019) Jo afo om “Sua, 'SNIHLY “SITOdONOY HHL JO NOLLVHOLSA “+ ssormdy IN jo ardor -sampemoza e Rusmy pomus 1 ? apura aq “ranfina uorradara om A HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE ON THE COMPARATIVE METHOD ' FOR THE STUDENT, CRAFTSMAN, AND AMATEUR BY PROFESSOR BANISTER FLETCHER, F.R.I.B.A. (Formerly Professor of Architecture in King's College, London) AND BANISTER F. FLETCHER, F.R.I.B.A., Architect (University Extension Lecturer on Architecture ; Formerly Lecturer on Architecture, King's College, London ; R.I.B.A. ' Godwin ' Bursar, 1893, ' Tite' Prize Medallist, 1895, Essay Medallist, 1896, Architectural Association Medallist for Design, 1888, Lecturer at the Architectural Association ; Hon. Corr. Member of the American Institute of Architects ; Author of " Andrea Palladia, his Life and Works," etc.] FIFTH EDITION, REVISED AND ENLARGED BY BANISTER F. FLETCHER WITH ABOUT TWO THOUSAND ILLUSTRATIONS LONDON B. T. BATSFORD, 94, HIGH HOLBORN MCMV. viii PREFACE TO THE FIFTH EDITION. been a sealed book to many who have wandered amongst the most beautiful creations of the building art without being able to understand their meaning or appreciate their quality a Grecian temple, a Roman amphitheatre, or a Gothic cathedral recalling to them none of the evidences which render each a reflection of its own period in history, and which give to each ancient building a special attraction, besides adding greatty to the interest and enjoyment of its examination. Architecture has been described very truly as the printing press of all ages, and it appears probable that in these days of enlighten- ment the study of Architectural History will soon take its proper place as part of a liberal education. It is surely remarkable that it should for so long have been neglected, for is it not the art with which everyone is brought into daily contact, which shelters us from the elements and gives us " Home," which enshrines and illuminates the most sacred of our thoughts, which is the outcome of conditions intimately bound up with the history of the human race, and, finally, is it not the mother of all other arts, since from it sprang sculpture, painting, and the decorative crafts of the succeeding ages ? The time spent in the study of the architecture of the past will, therefore, never be regretted, for every ruin tells of the history of other days, and enables the character and conditions of men of past periods to be conjured up, thus opening wide to all students and lovers of old buildings the enjoyment of contem- plating forms which will then have for them a meaning and a charm. I am indebted to my brother, Mr. H. Phillips Fletcher, F.R.I.B.A., for helpful criticism in this edition, and to my pub- lisher for his care in the revision of the bibliography and in the general production of the book. It should, perhaps, be mentioned that, owing to the death of Professor Banister Fletcher, the revision of the fourth and of the present edition has been carried out by me. BANISTER F. FLETCHER. 29, NEW BRIDGE STREET, LUDGATE CIRCUS, E.G. New Year's Day, 1905. PREFACE TO THE FIRST EDITION. THE Authors' aim in writing this book has been, not only to give in clear and brief form the characteristic features of the archi- tecture of each people and country, but also to consider those influences which have contributed to the formation of each special style. They are of opinion that in published works upon the subject, Architecture has often been too much isolated from its surround- ings, and that the main points of the physical geography, social progress, and historical development of each country require to be understood by those who would study and comprehend its particular style. In order to bring out the effects of these influences, and also the qualities of the styles themselves, a comparative and analytical method has been adopted, so that by the contrast of qualities the differences may be more easily grasped. For instance, the special character of Gothic architecture becomes manifest when put in comparison with the Classic and Renaissance styles ; and, further- more, the shades of difference in the local or national phases of each, can also be equally drawn out by a similar comparative treatment. The styles themselves are then analysed and the parts con- trasted ; the analysis being carried out on the basis of the essential parts which every building possesses. As this system pervades the whole book, either the influences, character, examples, or comparative features of each style, can be contrasted with those in any other style. This then is the scheme of the book, which has been divided into five sections in each period, as follows : i. INFLUENCES. i. Geographical, ii. Geological, iii. Climate. X PREFACE TO THE FIRST EDITION. 1. INFLUENCES continued. iv. Religion. v. Social and Political, vi. Historical. 2. ARCHITECTURAL CHARACTER. 3. EXAMPLES OF BUILDINGS. 4. COMPARATIVE. A. Plan, or general distribution of the building. B. Walls, their construction and treatment. C. Openings, their character and shape. D. Roofs, their treatment and development. E. Columns, their position, structure, and decoration. F. Mouldings, their form and decoration. G. Ornament, as applied in general to any building. 5. REFERENCE BOOKS. SECTION i is divided into the six leading influences that may be expected to shape the architecture of any country or people, the first three being structural, the next two the civilizing forces, and the last containing those external historical events which may alter or vary the foregoing. SECTION 2 describes the character of the architecture, that is, its special quality, and the general effect produced by the buildings as a whole. SECTION 3 contains the examples, i.e. the chief buildings in each style, briefly named and described, being the corpus, which the preceding influences affect and from which the subsequent comparative analysis is deduced. SECTION 4 is this comparative analysis, in which every style of architecture is regarded as the solution of certain fundamental problems, i.e. each building must have all or most of the parts A to G, and consequently there is both interest and instruction to be gained in learning and comparing how each style has solved these points of the problem. SECTION 5 gives authorities and more especially directs the reader who wishes to pursue the study of any style in further detail. In treating of the buildings themselves under Section 3 the authors have endeavoured to avoid long descriptions, which are Xi/i CONTENTS. PAGE List of Illustrations xv li Prehistoric Architecture .......... i PART I. THE HISTORICAL STYLES. General Introduction........... 4 Egyptian Architecture .......... 9 Western Asiatic Architecture ..... .... 32 Greek Architecture ........... 45 Roman Architecture . . . . . . . . . . 1 1 1 Early Christian Architecture . . . . . . . . .176 Byzantine Architecture .......... 192 Romanesque Architecture in Europe (General Introduction) . . .217 Italian Romanesque .......... 228 French Romanesque .......... 246 German Romanesque.......... 258 Gothic Architecture in Europe (General Introduction) .... 267 English Architecture . . . . . . . . . .278 Anglo-Saxon .....>...... 3.2 7 Norman ......... .... 328 Early English Gothic . . . .-' V . . . . . 335 Decorated Gothic .... . . . . . . .341 Perpendicular Gothic . . .. .... . . . 349 Tudor /\ . 356 Scottish Architecture ." 359 Irish Architecture . . . ' . . . ... . . . 3 French Gothic Architecture . . . .. ". . - 362 Belgian and Dutch Gothic . . . . . 385 German Gothic 393 Italian Gothic . ; . . 44 Spanish Gothic . . ' 424 Renaissance Architecture (General Introduction) ... . . ' . 437 Italian Renaissance Architecture . . . ... ^446 The Florentine School "446 The Roman School 456 The Venetian School . .' . . . . . -475 Vicenza and Verona ........ 4^8 XIV CONTENTS. Italian Renaissance Architecture continued. PAGE \s Milan and Genoa .......... 495 i- The Rococo Style 496 U French Renaissance Architecture . . , . . . . . 497 V German Renaissance . . . . . . . . . 5^7 Belgian and Dutch Renaissance . . . . . . . . .527 Spanish Renaissance....../..... 533 English Renaissance Architecture .. f...... 545 The Elizabethan Style . . . \ . . . . 551 The Jacobean Style . . . 561 The Anglo-Classic (Seventeenth Century) Style \ . 567 The Queen Anne (Eighteenth Century) Style/ . \ . . . 578 The Nineteenth Century Style (1800-1851) . . . '. . . 589 ,, ,, 1851 to present time . 593 British Colonial Architecture . . . . . . . . 597 Architecture in the United States . . 598 PART II. THE NON-HISTORICAL STYLES. General Introduction........... 603 Indian Architecture . . . . . . . . . . , 605 1. The Buddhist Style 612 2. The Jaina Style . . . . . . . . . , 614 3. The Hindu Style 618 (a) Northern Hindu ...... \. 618 (b) Chalukyan . . . . . . . . A . . 623 (c) Dravidian \.\ . . 628 Chinese and Japanese Architecture ..... /"A . , 634 Ancient American Architecture . . . . . , ... .652 Saracenic Architecture . . . . . . , \ . , 653 Arabian .......... \, 657 Syrian ............ 659 Egyptian 659 Spanish 663 Persian 667 Turkish 669 Indian . .671 Glossary of Architectural Terms . . . . . . . .687 Index 697 LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS. XV11 GREEK ARCHITECTURE. No. Name, 14. Map of Greece. ^5. Pelasgic System of Construction. Treasury of Athens, section ... A ,, ' ,, plan B Portion of shaft of column . . . c Capital of a column D The Gate of Lions, Mycenae E Acropolis at Tiryns, plan F 16. Greek Examples I. Greek Construction Portico of Parthenon, half elevation . A ,, ,, half transverse section . . B ,, ,, part plan . . c S. W. angle of Parthenon as restored . D, E, F Restoration of a Doric entablature . . G, H, j S.W. angle of Parthenon as at present . K, L 17. Plan of the Acropolis at Athens 18. Greek Examples II. Comparative plans of various forms of Temples. 19. Greek Examples III. The Doric Order- Temple of Ceres at Paestum ... A Temple of Neptune (the Great Temple) at Paestum ..... B Temple of Aphaia on the Island of ^Egina ...... c Temple of Theseus (The Theseion), Athens D The Parthenon (Temple of Athena), Athens ...... K Temple of Apollo, at Delos . . ." F 20. Greek Examples IV. Temple of Aphaia (Jupiter Panhellenius) at JEgina, ,, ,, ,, west pediment ,, ,, east elevation ,, ,, ,, transverse section ,, ., ,, longitudinal sec- tion ^y.^ ,, ,, , plan . . " I ,, ,, ,, view of upper Acroterion ridgeAcroterion tile. View of lower Acroterion Antefixse . Authorities. Gailhabaud. f Perrot and { Chipiez. I Gailhabaud. ^Cockerell. Penrose. f Perrot and ( Chipiez. Penrose. f Penrose and I others. Stuart and Revett, Cockerell. >C.R. Cockerell. F.A. XX LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS. No, Name. 30. Greek Examples XII. continued. The Erechtheion, west elevation . ,, ,, section ,, ,, north elevation . ., ,, plan ,, enlarged elevation of Caryatid Porch 31. Greek Examples XIII. Temple of Diana at Ephesus, view 6? front fa9ade . . . \. plan Heraion at Olympia, plan ,, section .... 32. Choragic Monument of Lysicrates, Athens 33- and The 34. 35. Comparative Examples of Greek Roman Corinthian Capitals. Capital of column to portico, Pantheon, Rome .... Typical Roman Acanthus leaf ., . Plans of capital (A) looking up Diagram of relative sizes of Pantheon, Rome, and the Stoa, Athens . . Angle view of capital from the Stoa, Athens ...... Plans of capital, looking up . . . Typical example of Greek Acanthus leaf Comparative Examples of Greek and Roman Theatres. Typical Greek theatre ... Roman theatre at Orange Greek Examples XIV. Mausoleum at Halicarnassos, transverse section .... ,, half plans of basement and peristyle ,, west fa?ade ,, enlarged capital, base and entablature , , south fa9ade ,, three other restorations: 36. Greek Examples XV. Lion Tomb, Cnidus, south elevation . ,, section '. . ,, west elevation ,, half plans of peristyle and roof ,, plan through base . . Sarcophagus from a tomb at Cnidus, end elevation . , . ,, side elevation . . . "Tomb of the Weepers' 1 A * B C D, E F G H D E F, G, H Authorities. Inwood, Middleton and others. [ Murray. Photo. Taylor and Cresy, Stuart and Revett. Cockerell. Newton and Pullan. > Society of Dilettanti. LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS. XXI No. Name. 37. Comparative Examples of Greek and Roman Doorways. Doorway of the Pantheon, Rome, elevation ...... Doorway of the Pantheon, Rome, details Doorway, Erechtheion, Athens, elevation ,, ,, ,, details . 38. Comparative diagrams of the Greek and Roman Orders of Architecture. Greek Doric Temple of Theseus at Athens ...... Roman Doric, by Vignola Greek Ionic Temple on the Ilissus, Athens ...... Roman Ionic, by Scamozzi . Greek Corinthian Choragic Monument of Lysicrates, Athens Roman Corinthian Pantheon, Rome . Comparison of Greek and Roman Mouldings I Comparison of Greek and Roman Mouldings II 39- 40. 41. Greek Ornament I. The Ionic Volute Volute from Cyprian tomb . Capital from Egyptian wall painting Bronze armour plate from Tamassos, Cyprus . . .... Capital from Neandria .... Capital from the Heraion at Olympia Ionic Lycian tomb .... Goldman's method of describing Ionic Volute Ionic Volute described by a whelk-shell Angle capital, N. portico of Erechtheion, half section ,, half front view . . ,, side view .... ,, plan, looking up . Temple of Nike Apteros, sketch of angle 42. Greek Ornament II. Scroll ornament from roof of choragic Monument of Lysicrates, Athens Sanctuary of the Bulls, Delos enlarged triglyphs, side view . ,, ,, front view enlarged capital, side view ,, ,, front view . key plan .... plan of piers . ... elevation of piers . Canephora . . .. . .... ,.-. A B, c D E to H A to M N to V Authorities. Mauch and Donaldson. } Stuart and | Revett. Mauch. \ Stuart and J Revett. Mauch. } Stuart and j Revett. Taylor and Cresy. Various.1 ) Stuart and Revett j" and Cockerell. Taylor and Cresy. Dr. Richter. Chambers. Mauch. J. Ward. Stuart and Revett. Durand. XX11 LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS. No. Name. 42. Greek Ornament II. continued. Caryatid figure from Erechtheion Typical Greek Anthemion Funeral Stele with 43- 44- 45- 46. 47- 48. 49. Greek Ornament III. Capital, Temple of Jupiter Olympius, Athens ...... A Capital, Tower of the Winds, Athens ./ B Capital, choragic Monument of Lysic rates, Athens c Sculptures, from Tower of the Winds, Athens . . . . . . D, E Half elevation of Stele Head . . F Greek Ornament IV. Honeysuckle ornament.... A Lion's head, front B side c Crowning ornament, choragic Monument of Lysicrates ..... D Stele head E Anta capital from Erechtheion . . F Portion of frieze from Parthenon . . G Metope from the Parthenon . . . H Acanthus ornament . . . . j Console from Erechtheion . . K, L Portion of caryatid figure M Antefixa ornnment N ROMAN ARCHITECTURE. Map of the Roman Empire. Roman Examples I. Roman System of Construction Roman walling of concrete with brick facing and methods of heating . . A to H Roman vaulting and domes of concrete I to M Plan of the Roman Fora The Forum Romanum restored Roman Examples II. Temple of Fortuna Virilis, Rome, plan . ,, ,, front fa9ade ,, ,, flank facade . Arch of Titus, Rome, section ,, ,, elevation ,, plan . Arch of Goldsmith's or Silversmith's, Rome, view from the south-west ,, ,, section . . , ,. plan elevation Authorities. | Stuart and j Revett. I Cockerell, Stuart and Revett. J. C. Watt. \ Stuart and j Revett. J. C.Watt, Stuart and Revett. 1J. Henry j Middleton. A. Choisy. 1 Taylor and Cresy and others. f Joseph \ Gatteschi. Taylor and Cresy. LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS. XXV No.- Name. 65. Roman Examples XII. House of Pansa at Pompeii ? j) ,, section. i\ ,, plan . Arch of Septimius Severus, Rome u ,, section ,, ,, elevations >, , > ,, plans . 66. Arch of Septimius Severus 67. Roman Ornament I. Temple of Jupiter at Rome, capital Arch of Titus, keystone. Forum of Nerva, Rome, cornice . Pilaster Villa Medici, Rome . Temple of Mars Ultor, capital Pantheon, panel ..... 68. Roman Ornament II. Temple of Jupiter Stator, Rome, details of cornice ,, ,, plan of coffer . ; , ,, key elevation . ,, console, looking up . Temple of Antoninus and Faustina, Rome, portion of frieze . '.:. Roman Corinthian pilaster capital, Pan- theon, Rome ..... Roman altar ..... Pilaster capitals . . . . * . Etruscan candelabrum . Pompeian candelabrum Roman gladiator's helmets Roman arm chair ..... 69. Roman Ornament III. Arch of Titus, Rome : Figures in span- drels of main arch .... Baths of Titus, Rome : Wall fresco Bronze candelabra .... Typical Roman tripod altar . Typical Roman baths .... Rostral column ..... Mosaic pavement, Pompeii . Roman chariot ..... Typical Roman tomb . 70. Principles of Proportion. Tetrastyle, hexastyle, and octastyle form of Temple Arch of Trajan, Beneventum Arch of Septimius Severus, Rome Baptistery, Pisa . . . ;. Proportions of mediaeval cathedrals Section of Henry VII. 's Chapel Chapter House at Wells S. George's Chapel, Windsor Section of King's College Chapel . Authorities. A B C D, E F A, C B D, E F G H F G H J K L, N M A, C B D, F E G, J H K L M A, B, C D F G H J K L M I Gailhabaud. [ Gailhabaud. Photo. ) Taylor and j Cresy. C. H. Tatham. ) Taylor and j Cresy. Taylor and [ Cresy. F. S. Meyer. D'Agincourt. Durand. J. C. Watt. v Durand. J. C. Watt. Durand. Gwilt. XXVI LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS. No. Name. 71. Optical Corrections in Architecture. Correction of apparent proportions Effect of color on proportions The Parthenon : Inclination of columns Method of drawing entasis of column The Parthenon : Optical corrections to prevent appearance of sagging . Optical illusions caused by convex and concave curves, when diawn in relation to parallel straight lines Authorities. Pennethorne. ViolleMe-Duc. Pennethorne. E, F, G A. Choisy. H, J EARLY CHRISTIAN ARCHITECTURE. 72. LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS. XXV11 No. 78. 79- 80. 81. 82. 83. 84- 85- 86. 87. Name. Early Christian Ornament continued. S. Giovanni, Rome, mosaic frieze in cloister ...... S. Clemente, Rome, parapet and pilaster S. Maria Maggiore, Rome, mosaic. S. Giovanni, mosaic floor Authorities. Digby Wyatt. Cattaneo. D'Agincourt. Digby Wyatt. A. Choisy. BYZANTINE ARCHITECTURE. Byzantine Examples I. Byzantine System of Construction. Dome construction . . . . A, B ) Lethaby and Method to find outline of pendentive . c, D j Swainson. S. Sergius, Constantinople, interior view....... E S. Sergius, Constantinople, exterior view....... F S. Sergius, Constantinople, plan . . G Tomb of Galla Placidia, section . . H S. Sophia, Constantinople, sectional view....... y S. Sophia, Constantinople, exterior view....... K Byzantine Examples II. S. Sophia, Constantinople, north-east elevation ...... A S. Sophia, Constantinople, longitudinal section ...... B S. Sophia, Constantinople, ground plan c S. Sophia, Constantinople, exterior . Photo. S. Sophia, Constantinople, interior . Photo. Comparative Examples of Early Domed Structures. The Minerva Medica, Rome, plan . . A ,, ,, ,, section . B S. Vitale, Ravenna, plan . ... c ,, ,, section . . . D Cathedral at Aix-la-Chapelle. plan E ,, ,, ,, section . F Byzantine Examples III. S. Mark, Venice, section ... A . S. Mark, plan . . . . . c S, Front, Perigueux, section B S. Front, Perigueux, plan D S. Mark, Venice, exterior . . . . S. Mark, interior Byzantine Examples IV. Cathedral at Athens, sketch ... A ,, plan B W. and E., elevations . C, D section ..... E Church of Theotokos, Constantinople, W. and S. elevations . . F, o plan . . . . ; _ .' H longitudinal section '. j,".:r, .... J \ Salzenberg. Isabelle. Gailhabaud. Dehio and Von Bezold. \ Gailhabaud. Photo. Photo. [ Gailhabaud. Gailhabaud. LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS. GOTHIC ARCHITECTURE. No. Name. 108. Map of Mediaeval Europe, Thirteenth Century. 109. Principles of Gothic Construction. Amiens Cathedral . . . . . A S. Saviour, Southwark, vaulting com- partment . B ,, ,, setting out of groined vault ( C, D 1 10. Comparative Views of Models of Con- tinental Cathedrals. Milan A Evreux....... B Cologne ...... C Vienna ....... D Chartres E in. Comparative Diagrams of Vaults and Domes. Roman cross vault .... A Romanesque cross vault ... B Byzantine and Renaissance domes . . c Gothic vault...... u Renaissance cross vault . . . . . E 112. English Gothic Examples I. Comparative Examples, showing progress of Gothic Vaulting. Waggon vault ..... A ,, plan .... B ,, ,, stilted .... c ,, ,, showing diagonal and transverse groins D Abbaye-aux-Hommes, sexpartite vaulting E ,, ,, external view . F Peterborough, Norman vaulting . . G ,, ,, plan . H Salisbury, Early English groined vaulting j, L Westminster Abbey, groined, with inter- mediate ribs . . . . . K, M Bristol Cathedral, Decorated Lierne vault N, o S. Mary, Redcliffe, Perpendicular stellar vault interior view . . . . p, Q Gloucester, Cathedral, Perpendicular fan vaulting . . . . . R, s 113. English Gothic Examples II. Types of Mediaeval Open Timber Roofs. Stowe Bardolph Church, trussed rafter roof A Trinity Chapel, Cirencester, tie-beam roof . . . . . ,-.-. B S. Mary Magdalen, Pulham, collar- braced roof . . . . - . c Trunch Church, hammer-beam roof D Authorities, Viollet-le-Duc. A. A. Notes. Photos- by T. Thatcher. W. R. Purchase. Parker, and f others. Brandon. XXXI Authorities. Weale. Brandon. Thomas Morris. Photos by T. Thatcher. LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS. No. Name. 113. English Gothic Examples II. continued. Types of Mediaeval Open Timber Roofs continued. Middle Temple Hall, double hammer- beam roof ..... E Ixworth Church, aisle roof F New Walsingham, aisle roof G Westminster Hall, hammer-beam roof . H Evolution of hammer-beam J 114. Comparative Views of Models of English Cathedrals I. Chichester Durham Ely . . . c Worcester . . . D Rochester . . . E Oxford . . F Carlisle . . . . G Bristol . ..... H 115 Comparative Views of Models of English Cathedrals II. York ....... A Chester ...... B Peterborough ..... C Exeter . . . . . . . L> Photos by Winchester ...... E T. Thatcher. Hereford ...... F Wells ....... G Gloucester . ..... H 116. Comparative Views of Models of English Cathedrals III. Salisbury ...... A Lincoln ...... B Canterbury ...... C Photos by Norwich ...... i> * T. Thatcher. Ripon ....... E Lichfield ...... F 117. English Gothic Examples III. Comparative Plans of English Cathedrals i. Ely ....... A 1 Builder ' Cathe- York ....... dral Series, Winchester ...... I Storer, Britton, Peterborough ..... Loftie, Murray, Salisbury ...... I Willis. Lincoln ...... 118. English Gothic Examples IV. Comparative Plans of English Cathedrals 2. Worcester ...... A 1 'Builder Cathe- Canterbury ...... B dral Series, Gloucester 7 . ..... c \ Loftie, Brit on, Norwich ...... D I Storer, Willis, Durham ..... E J Murray. xxxii No, 119. 120, 121. 122. 323: 124. 125. 126. LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS. Name. English Gothic Examples—V. Comparative plans of English is S. Asaph Da Maichpdtdr Oxford . Bangor . Exeter . S. Albans Chichester Rochester Wells Southwell S. Stephen, Westminster English Gothic Examples—VI. Comparative plans of English Cathedrals—4. Christ Church, Dublin Carlisle. Llandaff Glasgow S. Davids Chester Ripon Hereford Lichfield Bristol Salisbury Cathedral, exterior English Gothic Examples VII. Comparative Examples of English Cathe- drals : Peterborough, external bay a detail of pier mi cross section internal bay Salisbury, external bay . » part cross section É internal bay Salisbury Cathedral, interior English Gothic Examples—VIII. Comparative Examples of English Cathe- drals : Lichfield, exterior » section interior . Winchester, exterior ” section É interior Lincoln Cathedral, exterior. . . Lincoln Cathedral, interior ETom> A rnúrza RCzomncound onmtou mmEou> Authorítics, * Builder" Cathe- dral Series, Loftie, Britton, |: e" Storer, Murray. *Builder' Cathe- dral — Series, Loftie, Britton, Storer, Murray, Photo. E Robert. | Photo. Britton, Photo. Photo. LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS. XXXV No. Name. 142. English Gothic Examples XVII. Comparative Examples showing progress of Gothic Tracery Development : Lynchmere, plate tracery ... A Woodstock ,, ., . . . B Dorchester, bar tracery . . . c Minster Lovel, bar tracery . . . D Headington, plate tracery . . . E Wimborne Minster, grouped lancet lights F Warmington, grouped lancet lights . G Long Wittenham, geometrical tracery . H S. Mary Magdalen, curvilinear tracery . j Duston, clerestory windows . . . K, I, Great Milton, curvilinear tracery . . M New College Chapel, rectilinear tracery. N King's College Chapel ,, ,, . o S. Mary, Dinan, Flamboyant example . p 143. English Gothic Examples XVIII. Comparative Examples of English Gothic Doorways : Clare Church, elevation ... A capital and base . - B jamb moulding . . c S. John, Cley half exterior and interior . D capital and base . . E arch mould F jamb and arch mould . G capital and base . . H Merton Colle e Chapel, Oxford, elevation j ,, capital and base K ,, jamb and arch moulds . L , , jamb mould . M Authorities. Parker. J. K. Colling. Bowman and Crowther Pugin. 144. English Gothic Examples XIX. Norman Font, Coleshill, Warwickshire . A E. English Font, Lackford, Suffolk . B Decorated Font, Offley, Herts . . c Perpendicular Font, ClympingCh, Sussex D Norman Piscina, Crowmarsh, Oxford- shire....... E E. English Piscina, Cowling, Suffolk . F Decorated Piscina. Gt. Bedwin, Wiltshire G Perpendicular Piscina, Cobham, Kent . H E. English Tabernacle, Warmington, Northants ...... j Norman Sedilia, S. Mary, Leicester . K Decorated Tabernacle, Exeter Cathedral L E. English Sedilia, Rushden, Northants M Decorated Sedilia, Merton, Oxon . ' . N Perpendicular Sedilia, S. Mary, Oxon . o Parker. Braddon. Parker. C 2 XXXVI LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS. No, Name, 145. English Gothic Examples XX. Pew, Steeple Aston, Oxon. . Pulpit (External), Magdalene Coll., Oxford Pulpit, Wolvercot, Oxon. Eagle Lectern, Upwell S. Peter, Norfolk Roodloft, Handborough, Oxfordshire Parclose Screen, Geddington Ch., Northants , Prince Arthur's Chantry, Worcester Cathedral Authorities. [ Parker. j A. A. Sketch I Book. Parker. [ J. K. Colling. 146. English Gothic Ornament I. Comparative Mouldings of the Periods of Gothic Architecture : " Norman" capitals, bases, piers . . I to 13 " Early English '" ., ,. 141025 "Decorated" .. ., . .261038 "Perpendicular ' ,. ,, . 39 to 54 147. English Gothic Ornament II. Comparative Selection of Gothic Ornaments in Different Periods : Early English dog-tooth ornament. . A ., ,, crocket . . . . j ,, parapet .... M " Decorated " four-leaved flower . . B ball flower c tablet flower . . . D typical crocket . . K parapet N " Perpendicular " vine leaf and grapes . E cornice flower . . F Tudor flower, cresting . G Tudor rose H crocket .... L parapet o Parker and Paley. Parker. Bloxam. \ * Parker. R. Glazier. ) , L Parker. - Bloxam. Parker. 148. English Gothic Ornament III. Comparative Examples of Gothic Capitals and Carved Foliage : " Norman " capitals . . . . A, B, c" Early English " capitals and spandrel D, E, F 'jDecorated " capitals and ornament . G, H, J, K " Perpendicular " capitals, spandrels . L. M, N, o,P I i Parker, Pugin, and Colling. 149. English Gothic Ornament IV. Gable Crosses : Early English Higham Ferrers ,, ,, Decorated Haslingfield Church ,, ,, Perpendicular Stoke Ferry Church . j. K. Colling. )-Brandon. No. LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS. Name. 149. English Gothic Ornament IV. continued, Sanctus Bell Bloxham Church, Oxon. . Finials : Early English Lincoln Cathe- dral ..... ,, Decorated Winchester Cathe- dral ..... ,, Perpendicular York Minster . Stone Pendant : Perpendicular, All Saints, Evesham .... Bosses : Early English Lincoln Cathe- dral . ., ,, Westminster Abbey . Decorated Southwell Minster. , , Perpendicular S. Mary's Church, Bury St. Edmunds . Early English bracket: S. Alban's Abbey Poppy-heads : Paston Church, Norfolk . ,, Winchester Cathedral 150. Compton Wynyates, Warwickshire 151. Examples of Scottish Architecture. Rothesay Castle, plan .... Drum Castle, plan..... Doune Castle, plan Castle Frazer, plan Cowane's Hospital, plan Glamis Castle, plan .... ,, view from the south-east George Heriot's Hospital, plan ,, entrance gate- way . Grangepans, sketch from .the S.E. . 152. Examples of Irish Architecture. Cormac's Chapel, Cashel, ground plan . ,, ,. ,, view from the S.E. ,, ,, ,, plan of crofts. ,, ,, ,, section through nave . ,, ,, ,, long, section . ,, ,, ,, section through Tower, Devenish . ,, Kilree, Kilkenny sanctuary N. porch XXXV11 Authorities. P>om a Photo. }]. K. Colling. Nash. ^ MacGibbon and f Ross. Arthur Hill. Fergusson. } Arthur Hill. Fergusson. FRENCH GOTHIC. 153. French Gothic Examples I. Beauvais Cathedral, section A \ plan c j- Bulges. ,, ,, plans of buttress . D, E, F ) Notre Dame, Paris, wheel window . K Gailhabaud. xl LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS. No. Name. 180. Ca d'Oro Palace, Venice 181. Florence Cathedral. Exterior . 182. Siena Cathedral. Exterior 183. Monreale Cathedral. The cloisters . 184. Italian Gothic Ornament. Baptistery at Pisa, detail of capital from pulpit ,, ,, plan of pulpit . ,, pulpit ,, Florence, candelabra Campo Snnto, Pisa, window . Pisa Cathedral, portion of pulpit . ,, ,, lion and base of column Naples, capital ..... Ducal Palace, Venice, capital Venice, angle window .... Palazzo Scaligeri, Verona, campanile . 185. Burgos Cathedral. Exterior . 1 86. Burgos Cathedral. Interior 187. Spanish Gothic Examples. S. Maria del Mar, Barcelona, plan Barcelona Cathedral, plan Gerona ,, ., Toledo ,, ,, Lerida ,,. ,, 1 88. S. Juan de los Reyes, Toledo 189. S. Gregorio, Valladolid .... 190. Spanish Gothic Ornament. Burgos Cathedral, ornament from tomb . ,, Gonzalo ,, . balcony sculptured pier . plan .... window of dome elbows of sedilia Miraflores, Infante's tomb . ,, base of Infante's tomb . ,, pier of ,. ,, Las Huelgas, capitals .... S. Gil, canopy ..... A B c H L J K D G M, N E F Authorities. Photo. Photo. Photo. Photo. [ Rohault de I Fleury. Norman Shaw.. ") Rohault de ) Fleury. Cicognara. Photo. Photo. L Street. Photo. Photo. -Waring, RENAISSANCE ARCHITECTURE, 191. Florentine Renaissance Examples I. Palazzo Strozzi, main cornice . . A ,, ,, section and elevation of court ; . . c ,, ., plan E ,, ,, keystone F \- Raschdorff. (Grandjean et ( Famin. Raschdorff. LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS. Xli No. Name. 191. Florentine Renaissance Examples I. continued. Palazzo Riccardi, main cornice . . B ., ,, elevation . . . D ,, ,, plan.... G 192. Palazzo Riccardi, Florence 193. Florentine Renaissance Examples II. Pazzi Chapel, plan ,, ,, elevation . ,, ,, section S. Lorenzo, plan.... S. Andrea, Mantua, plan ., ,, ,, long, section. porch . S. Spirito, capital ,, ,, plan .... ,, ,, long, section 194. Florentine Renaissance Ornament. Duomo of Fiesole, console from tomb Palazzo Vecchio. capital Medici Chapel, Santa Croce, corbel Palazzo Strozzi, window ,, Gondi, ,, . ,, Pandolfini, window . ,, ,, pilaster . Mercato Nuovo, niche . Banner bracket Piazzo Annunziata, bronze fountain Palazzo Guadagni, lamp bracket . 195. Palazzo Giraud, Rome . . . 196. Roman Renaissance Examples I. Cancellaria Palace, elevation . ,, ,, plan Massimi Palace, elevation ,, ; , plan 197. Farnese Palace, Rome 198. Roman Renaissance Examples II. Farnese Palace, Rome Details of main cornice . Front fa?ade .... Elevation of cortile Plan Section and plan through loggia Upper plan .... A, B C D E F G, H J Authorities. / Grandjean et ( Famin. / Waring and ( Macquoid. J Grandjean et ( Famin. Photo. I Grandjean et j Famin. D'Agincourt. D'Agincoiirt. A B li No. 199. 201. 202, 203. 204. 205. 206. LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS. Name. Roman Renaissance Examples III. Tempietto of S. Pietro in Montorio, Rome— Elevation . Lc Lu A Section. B Plan RO c Andrea, Rome, plu. D É » section Sea qrÊ im. elevation . RR S. Maria della Consolazione, Todi, plan . / G a E elevation | H ” section . J Hl Jesu, Rome, plan". eee 1» clevation E ” ” section . . M The Capitol, Rome. |. A, Roman Renaissance E ERRA The Capitol, Rome, plan a » elevation z Palace of Caprarola, plan. c ” »” elevation . D E section j E S. Peter, Rome, RR yo S. Peter, Rome— Plan of peristyle a by Bramante. B Re e alo c f »» by Bramante D Elevation FR E Section of dome F Cross section . e Sketch of peristyle . = Suggested plan by Raphael J General plan . K Half plan by Peruzi L » by Ant Sangalo . . um S. Peter, Rome. Interior. . S. Peter, Rome. Exterior Roman Renaissance Ornament, Farnese Palace, window. A E se É B E 5 h G Cancellaria Palace, window and balcony. z 5 . section p » » » Plan F Massimi Palace, doorhead . 1x S. M. sopra Minerva, doorway o S. Agostino, panels x S. M. del Popolo, angle of tomb o H + tomb P Authorities. | Letarouilly. D'Agincourt. | |Ssataa, Photo. 1 | Durand. Photo, ) [Durand. E Durand. | Durand. Fergusson. Photo. Photo. Letarouilly. LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS. xlv 224. 225. 226. 227. 228. 229. 231, 232. 233- 234- Name. The Pantheon, Paris .... French Renaissance Ornament I. Palace at Fontainebleau, capital ,, ,, panel Chateau de Chamborcl, capital ,, ,, dormer ,, Chenonceaux, doorway French Renaissance Ornament II. Keystone Balcony (Louis XV.) . Versailles, lead fountain Lycee Napoleon, dormer window . Paris, console ..... Versailles, style of decoration Doorway . . Paris, fountain (Louis XV.) . ,, door and window . Palais Royal, cornice and balustrade Heidelberg Castle The Rathhaus, Cologne .... German Renaissance Examples. Lemgo Town Hall, elevation . Solothurn Town Hall, elevation Ober-Ehnheim, wellhead Weimar, arcade ..... Nuremberg, dormer window . . . The Pellerhaus, Nuremberg . German Renaissance Ornament. Heidelberg Castle, windows and niche . ,. ,, statue . . Freiburg, Switzerland, capital Heilbron, gable ..... Freiburg, capital ..... Erfurt, window ..... Heilbron, cartouche .... Munich, doorway..... Belgian and Dutch Renaissance Examples. Haarlem, pinnacles .... Antwerp, gable ..... Utrecht, pilasters ..... Leyden Town Hall, elevation The Town Hall, Antwerp Belgian and Dutch Renaissance Ornament. Dordrecht, bench-ends .... Antwerp, doorway .... Gable end Enghien, capital ..... Brussels, ornament Musee Plantin, Antwerp, door ,, ,, ,, staircase . Zalt Bommel, figures .... L'Eglise des Capucins, ornament . Authorities. Photo. A, B C. E D,F K, L, M H, J A B, C, D E F G, H L J, K N, O, P Q, R, S T, U J Pfnor. 'rBerty. } Cesar Daly. Photo. Photo. Lambert and c ' D Stahl. J E F, G A, C B D E F G H J A, B, C, E Photo. Lambert and Stahl. Photo. A, B C D E F G H J K VEwerbeck. xlvi LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS. No. Name. 235. Town Hall, Seville 236. Spanish Renaissance Examples. Toledo ; the Alcazar, portion of facade . Avila, the Casa Polentina courtyard 237. Burgos. Courtyard of the House of Miranda ..... 238. Comparative Plans of Various Buildings. The King's House, Greenwich . . ( The Rotunda, Vicenza .... The Escurial, Spain .... Villa of Pope Julius, Rome . Blenheim Palace ..... 239. Spanish Renaissance Ornament. Siguenza Cathedral, door from cloisters Cuenza Cathedral, iron screen Alcala De Henares, window . Avila, iron pulpit .... 240. Map of Western Europe at the Time of Elizabeth. 241. Hatfield House. The Hall . 242. Knole, Kent. Staircase 243. Haddon Hall. Long Gallery . 244. English Renaissance Examples I. Holland House, elevation ,, ., ground floor plans Stockton House, side of drawing-room . Blickling Hall, Norfolk, the great staircase ..... 245. English Renaissance Examples II. Castle Ashby, Northamptonshire, south elevation i 1 . plan . Hardwicke Hall, elevation it plan . 246. Kirby Hall, Northants . 247. Little Moreton Hall, Cheshire 248. The Tower of the old Schools, Oxford . 249. Hatfield House , . , A B C D, E F A B, C D E A B, C D E Authorities Photo. } A. N. Prentice. Photo. Campbell. Palladio. Thompson. Letarouilly. Kc rr. -A. N. Prentice. Nash. Nash. Nash. Richardson. f Princess of ( Lichenstein. [ Henry Shaw. j \ P. F. Robinson. Photo. Photo. Photo. Photo. LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS. xlvii No. Name. 250. English Renaissance Ornament I. Bramshill House, Hants, balustrade . A ., ., ,, oriel . . E ,, ,, ., arcade . . G ,. ,, ,, plaster ceiling M Duke's House, Bradford, balustrade . B Hatfield House, newel c Blickling Hall, Norfolk, entrance . . D ,, ,, ,. chimney piece K All Hallow's (Barking) Church, wall tablet F House at Yarmouth, frieze . . . H Aston Hall, frieze j Claverton, Somersetshire, rain water head ...... L 251. English Renaissance Ornament II. Doorway in Broughton Castle . . A Bay window, Hinchingbrooke Hall . B Chapel screen, Charterhouse, London . c Bookcase, Pembroke College, Cambridge D Tomb of Lord Burghley, S. Martin, Stamford ...... E Throne and stalls, Convocation Room, Oxford ...... F Pulpit, North Cray Church, Kent . . G Lead cistern, Victoria and Albert Museum ...... H Tablet, Peterhouse College Chapel, Cambs. j 252. English Renaissance Examples III. York Water-Gate, London, elevation . A ,, ,, ,, plan . . B Banqueting House, Whitehall, elevation c ,, ,, plan . D Whitehall Palace, ground plan . . E 253. English Renaissance Examples IV. S. Paul, London, Wren's original plan A ,, ,, section through dome ,, ,, plan . . . c ,, ,, sketch of peristyle . D ,, ,, transverse section . E , , western fa$ade . F 254. S. Paul, London 255. English Renaissance Examples V. S. Mary Le Bow, section ... A ,, ,, elevation . . . B ,, ,, plans . . . 1-6 S. Bride, elevation c ,, section D ,, plans . . . . 7-12 Authorities. I Henry Shaw.. j Richardson. } Henry Shaw~ Richardson. }J.A. Gotch. H. Tanner, junr.. J. A. Gotch. H.'.Tanner, junr.. C. J.Richardson. H. I. Triggs. H. Tanner, junr.. Campbell. Kent. Campbell. Kent. Clayton and Gailhabaud Photo. J-Clayton.. No. 281. 282, 283. 284. 285. 286. 287. 288. 289. 290. 291. LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS. Name. Chinese and Japanese Examples. Canton merchant's house Pekin, Altar of Agriculture . Pekin, pavilion, summer palace Nankin, porcelain tower Tokyo, Temple of Miyo-Jin-Kanda Japanese middle-class house Tea-house, Japan . E Japam, public baths A Pailoo Chinese and Eae Ornament. Columned brackets Detail of caves. Roof construction Fret ornaments Garden temple Great Temple, Canton. Triumphal arch, Canton Gate, Temple of Confucius Sketch of Tenno-ji Pagoda Temple of Miyo-jin, altar shrine Japanese lamp + compound bracket font shed : 5» gableends EA Fr E E H,3 K LM SARACENIC ARCHITECTURE. Map of the Saracen Empire Mosque of Kait Bey, Cairo. Exterior Saracenic Examples in Spain and Egypt. Mosque of Ibn Tooloon, plan. » — courtyard Mosque of Sultan Hassan, Cairo, plan. + Section The Alhambra, Granada, plan h5 » elevation The Mosque of Kait Bey, Cairo. Interior Mosque, Cordova. Interior The Giralda, Seville. Exterior The Alhambra, Granada. capta in courtyard Ê ER o ane The Alhambra, capital. ço blind window wall ornament Mosque of Sultan Hassan, column Cairo, portalarch. : mnceur aC E D E F Authorities. Chambers. RI.BA. papers, 1866 [cor Rosengarten. -J. Conder Photo, | Chambers. , j Chambers. Chambers. Rosengarten. From a photo. J. Conder. ! J. Conder. Photo. k Gailhabaud. E gusson. Durand. Photo. Photo. Photo. Photo. foner Jones No. 291. 292. 293. 295. 296. 298. 299. LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS. Name, Saracenic Ornament in Spain and Egypt—continued. Arch voussoirs . Capital, showing stalactite ornament “Typical dome Various forms of arches Cresting to walls , The Mosque of Suleiman 1. ; Fountain near S. Sophia, Constanti- nople : Saracenic Examples in India. The T4j-Mehál, Agra, plan . n » general view » Section Mosque, Futtehpore-Sikri, plan view. Tomb of Selim Chistee, Section plan The Jumma' Musjid, om plan ” ” ” section Mosque of Futtehpore-Sikri . Fnttehpore-Sikri, Marble tomb of Selim Chistee The Táj-Mehál, em Saracenic Ornament in India. Tuttehpore-Sikri, window õ ai tos Da Dewan Khas, Futtehpore-Sikri, plan » elevation Selim Chistes's Tomb . Futtehpore-Sikri, bracketed column. Gopal Bhawan Palace at Deeg, Agra, porch Selim Chistee's Tomb, view of angle Minaret from Mosque, Agra. Futtehpore-Sikri, red sandstone bracket 5» arch, springing É Comparative forms of Arches. e H k LM, N o, P “Zonsgour raSOsm Authorities, + Owen Jones. Photo, Photo, Fergusson | Edmund Smith, Cole, tc f ! Cunningham. Photo, Photo, Photo, | Edmund Smith. Icote. Edmund Smith. Le Bon. H. H. Cole. k Le Bon. fEidmuna Smith. DIAGRAM TABLE OF THE SYSTEM OF CLASSIFICATION FOR EACH STYLE. 1. Influences. i. GEOGRAPHICAL. n. GEOLOGICAL. in. CLIMATE. iv. RELIGION. v. SOCIAL AND POLITICAL. vi. HISTORICAL. 2. Architectural Character. 3. Examples. 4. Comparative Table. A. Plan, or general distribution of the building. B. Walls, their construction and treatment. - c. Roofs, their treatment and development. D. Openings, their character and shape. E. Columns, their position, structure, and decoration. F. Mouldings, their form and decoration. G. Ornament, as applied in general to any building. 5. Reference Books. PREHISTORIC ARCHITECTURE. 3 the hut (No. 2 A, D, E) for the agriculturist, and the tent (No. 2 j) for those such as shepherds leading a pastoral or nomadic life. Structures of the prehistoric period, although interesting for archaeological reasons, have little or no architectural value, and will only be lightly touched upon. The remains may be classified under : i. Monoliths, or single upright stones, also known as menhirs, a well-known example 63 feet high, 14 feet in diameter, and weighing 260 tons, being at Carnac, Brittany. Another example is at Locmariaker, also in Brittany (No. 2 B). ii. Dolmens (Daul, a table, and maen, a stone), consisting of one large flat stone supported by upright stones. Examples are to be found near Maidstone and other places in England, also in Ireland, Northern France, the Channel Islands, Italy (No. 2 F) and India. iii. Cromlechs, or circles of stone, as at Stonehenge (No. 2 G), Avebury (Wilts), and elsewhere, consisting of a series of upright stones arranged in a circle and supporting horizontal slabs. iv. Tumuli, or burial mounds, were probably prototypes of the Pyramids of Egypt (No. 4) and the beehive huts found in Wales, Cornwall, Ireland (No. 2 D, E) and elsewhere. That at New Grange (Ireland) resembles somewhat the Treasury of Atreus at Mycenae (No. 15). v. Lake Dwellings, as discovered in the lakes of Switzer- land, Italy and Ireland consisted of wooden huts supported on piles, and were so placed for protection against hostile attacks of all kinds. These foregoing primitive or prehistoric remains have little constructive sequence, and are merely mentioned here to show from what simple beginnings the noble art of architecture was evolved, although unfortunately the stages of the evolution cannot be traced, owing to the fact that the oldest existing monuments of any pretension, as in Egypt, belong to a high state of civilization. REFERENCE BOOKS. Gamier (C.) and Ammann (A.). " L' Habitation Humaine Pre- historique et Historique." 4to. Paris. 1892. Lineham (R. S.). " The Street of Human Habitations : An Account of Man's Dwelling-places, Customs, etc., in Prehistoric Times, and in Ancient Egypt, Assyria, Persia, India, Japan, etc." 8vo., cloth. 1894. Viollet-le-Duc (E. E.). "The Habitations of Man in all Ages." Translated from the French by B. Bucknall. 8vo. 1876. Waring (J. B.). " Stone Monuments, Tumuli, and Ornament of Remote Ages, with Remarks on the Early Architecture of Ireland and Scotland." Folio. 1870. B 2 PART I. / v THE HISTORICAL STYLES. GENERAL INTRODUCTION. " Deal worthily \vith the History of Architecture and it is worthy to take its place with the History of Law and of Language." FREEMAN. IN introducing this Comparative treatment of Historical Archi- tecture, a general outline sketch is given of the course which the art has taken up to the present time in Europe, and also in those countries, such as Egypt and Assyria, which have influenced that development. Architecture may be said to include every building or structure raised by human hands, and is here denned as construction with an artistic motive : the more the latter is developed, the greater being the value of the result. The first habitations of man were undoubtedly those that nature afforded, such as caves (No. 2 H) or grottoes, which demanded little labour on his part to convert into shelters against the fury of the elements, and attacks from his fellows or wild animals. As soon as man rose above the state of rude nature, he naturally began to build more commodious habitations for him- self, and some form of temple for his god. Such early forms are given under the heading of Prehistoric Architecture. To pass, however, at once into Historic times, there prevailed in Egypt a system of architecture which consisted of a massive construction of walls and columns, in which the latter closely spaced, short, and massive carried lintels, which in their turn supported the flat beamed roof. In Babylonia, the develop- ment of brick construction with the consequent evolution of the arch and vault was due to the absence of more permanent building materials. The influence of Egyptian and Assyrian architecture on that of Greece is apparent in many directions. GENERAL INTRODUCTION TO THE HISTORICAL STYLES. 5 Grecian architecture is considered by many to have had its origin in the wooden hut or cabin formed of posts set in the earth, and covered with transverse beams and rafters, and this was the type which was developed in the early Mycenaean period into the pyodomus of the Greek house. This timber archi- tecture, copied in marble or stone, was naturally at first very simple and rude ; the influence of the material, however, was soon felt, when the permanence and value of stone aided in the growth of the art. It should be noted, however, that many writers hold that Greek architecture is developed from an early stone type. As civilization and technical skill, moreover, advanced, the qualities of refinement in detail and proportion were perceived, and the different orders of architecture Doric, Ionic, and Corinthian (No. 38) came into existence. By the word " order " is meant certain methods of proportioning and decorating a column, and the part it supports, i.e., the entablature. The above "orders" are characteristic of Greek architecture, and the beauty and grace with which they were treated, and the artistic and mathematical skill with which they were constructed, illustrate the keen artistic temperament of the Greeks. Greece eventually succumbed to the conquering Romans who, however, adopted their architecture, and in many cases employed Greek artists in the erection of their buildings. While borrowing this trabeated architecture, they added the use of the arch, which they had probably already learnt to construct from the Etruscans, the ancient inhabitants of Central Italy. The column and arch were used conjointly by the Romans for some time, good examples being the Colosseum at Rome (Nos. 62 and 63), and the Triumphal Arches (Nos. 65 and 66). This dualism is a very important fact to remember, because, as will be seen, it eventually ended in the exclusion of the beam altogether, and in the employment of the arch alone, throughout the entire constructive system of the building. In the numerous buildings which the Romans erected, it will be noticed that the column has. in the generality of cases, become merely a decorative feature, the actual work of support being performed by the piers of the wall behind, connected together by semicircular arches. As time went on, however, such practical people as the Romans could not but discard a feature which was no longer utilitarian, so the column as a decorative feature disappeared, and the arcuated system it had masked was exposed. Columns were, however, used constructively, as in many of the great basilicas, in which the semicircular arches spring directly from their capitals. As the Romans conquered the whole of the then known world, that is to say, most of what is now known as Europe (No. 45), so this feature of the semicircular arch was introduced in every part, by its use in the settlements COMPARATIVE ARCHITECTURE. GENERAL REFERENCE BOOKS. N.B. Lists of Reference Books for specialperiods and styles are given throughout the book. "Architectural Association Sketch Book." Folio. 1867-1904. Bosc (E.). " Dictionnaire raisonne d'Archi lecture." 4 vols., 4to. Paris, 1877-1880. Brault (E.). " Les Architects par leurs ceuvres." 7 3 vols. Paris, 1892- 1893. Choisy (A.). " Histoire de 1'Architecture." 2 vols, 8vo. Paris, 1899. Cummings (C. A.). "A History of Architecture in Italy from the Time of Constantine to the Dawn of the Renaissance." 2 vols., 8vo. 1901. D'Agincourt (S.).- -"History of Art by its Monuments." Translated from the Italian by Owen Jones. Folio. 1847. Dehio (G.) and Bezold (G. v.). "Die Kirchliche Baukunst des Abendlandes." Folio. Stuttgart, 1884, etc. " Dictionary of Architecture, issued by the Architectural Publication Society." With Detached Essays and Illustrations. 6 vols., folio. 1848-1892. Durand (J. N. L.). " Parallele des Edifices de tout genre." Paris, 1800. Eulart (C.). " Manuel d'Archeologie Fran9aise depuis les temps Merovingiens jusqu'a la Renaissance." i. Architecture Religieux. 2. Architecture Civile. 2 vols., Svo. Paris, 1902. Fergusson (J.). " History of Architecture in all Countries." 5 vols., Svo. 1893, etc. Fletcher (B. F.). " The Influence of Material on Architecture." Imperial Svo. 1897. Gailhabaud (J.). L'Architecture du V. au XVII. siecle." 5 vols., folio and 410. Paris, 1869-1872. Gailhabaud (J.). "Monuments Anciens et Modernes." 410. Paris. 1850. Gwilt (J.). "Encyclopaedia of Architecture." Svo. 1900." Handbuch der Architektur." Comprising a number of volumes upon the History and Practice of Architecture. Darmstadt. Milizia (F.). " Lives of Celebrated Architects." 2 vols., Svo. 1826. Parker (J.). " Glossary of Terms used in Architecture." 3 vols. 1850. Perrot (G.) and Chipiez (C.). " History of Ancient Art." 12 vols., Svo. 1883-1894. Planat. " Encyclopedic d'Architecture et de la Construction." 1 1 vols. " Royal Institute of British Architects' Transactions.' 3 1853 ct scq. Sturgis. "A Dictionary of Architecture and Building." 3 vols., 4to. New York, 1901. Vasari (G.). " Lives of the most Eminent Painters, Sculptors and Architects." Edited by Blashfield. 4 vols., Svo. 1897. Viollet-le-Duc (E. C.). " Dictionnaire de 1'Architecture." 10 vols., Svo. Paris, 1859. Viollet-le-Duc. " Entretiens sur 1'Architecture." 3 vols. Paris, 1863. There is an English translation by B. Bucknall, entitled " Lectures on Architecture." 2 vols., Svo. 1877-1881. Vitruvius (Marcus Pollio). "The Architecture of." Translated by W- Newton. Folio, 1791. An edition by J. Gwilt. 410. i3?6. EGYPTIAN ARCHITECTURE. " Those works where man has rivalled nature most, Those Pyramids, that fear no more decay Than waves inflict upon the rockiest coast, Or winds on mountain steeps, and like endurance boast." i. INFLUENCES. i. Geographical. -The civilization of every country has been, as will be shown, largely determined by its geographical conditions, for the characteristic features of the land in which any race dwells shape their mode of life and thus influence their intellectual culture. On referring to the map (No. 3) it will be seen that Egypt consists of a sandy desert with a strip of fertile country on the banks of the Nile. Egypt was the only nation of the ancient world which had at once easy access to the Northern, or Mediterranean Sea, as well as to the Eastern, or Arabian Sea ; for by way of the Red Sea, Egypt always commanded an access to both these highways. The consequence was that Egypt had outlets for her own pro- ductions and inlets for those of foreign nations. The possession pf the Nile, moreover, was of immense advantage, not only on IO COMPARATIVE ARCHITECTURE. account of its value as a trade route, and as a means of communi- cation, but also because its waters were the fertilizing agents that made desert sands into fruitful fields. It was on the banks of this ancient river that from time immemorial the cities of the Egyptians were naturally placed ; here, therefore, are found the chief remains of the Tombs, Temples, and Pyramids. ii. Geological. In this section throughout the volume an endeavour will be made to trace that influence on architectural style which the materials at hand in each/country had in its development. The natural products of /a country such as wood, brick, or stone, determine to a large extent its style of art. In Egypt there existed an abundance of limestone in the north,! of sandstone in the central region, and of granite in the south. I The latter is principally found near Assuan (Syene), and is called Syenite. This hard and lasting building material largely influenced the architecture of the country, and to its durable qualities is due the fact that there are so many remains. Bricks were also employed, but were generally faced with some harder material. Wood of a kind suitable for building was not available,/ only small forests of palm and acacia existing. J iii. Climate. The climate is equable and of warm temperature, snow and frost being wholly unknown, while storm, fog, and even rain are rare, which accounts to a large extent for the good preservation of the temples. Egypt has been said to have but two seasons, spring and summer. The climate was thus of importance in developing the qualities of the architecture, admit- ting of simplicity in construction, for though it demanded some I protection against heat there was no necessity to provide against inclement weather. iv. Religion. A close_^ojonectioji_h.etween religion and archi- tecture is everywhere manifest at this epoch. The priesthood was powerful, possessed of almost unlimited authority, and equipped with all the learning of the age. The religious rites were traditional, unchangeable, and mysterious. A tinge of mystery is one of the great characteristics of the Egyptian archi- tecture as well in its tombs as in its temples. The Egyptians attained to a very high degree of learning in astronomy, mathe- matics, and philosophy ; the remains of their literature have been preserved to us in the papyri, or MSS. written on paper made from the pith of the papyrus. In theory the religion was mono- theistic, but in practice it became polytheistic ; a multiplicity of gods was created by personifying natural phenomena, such as the sun, moon, and stars, as well as the brute creation. The Egyptians were strong believers in a future state ; hence their care in the preservation of their dead, and the erection of such everlasting monuments as the Pyramids. Herodotus mentions EGYPTIAN ARCHITECTURE. 13 lintels of the doors and windows were made of reeds in the humbler dwellings and of palm trunks in those of more pretension. Here, then, is seen a fair and likely prototype of the construc- tion of an Egyptian wall, the form of which is more suitable to a structure of rushes overlaid with mud or puddled clay than to one consisting of large stones. Still, an important point remains the batter or slope which is invariably given to the walls. Viollet-le-Duc's theories as to the origin of this batter do not point to the influence of material, and this feature is alleged by him to have been introduced at a later stage, having been promulgated by a royal decree. He infers the custom to have been derived from the Pyramids, which were found to remain undisturbed during earthquakes, while straight-sided houses were upset, owing to their walls being more easily over- turned. It seems, however, more reasonable to attribute it to a mud origin, for nothing would be more natural, in order to strengthen such buildings, than to slightly tilt the bundles of reeds towards the interior, forming as it were an arch, a treatment which in any other material scarcely seems to be feasible. Proceeding to the internal architectural features of the style, a very distinct reminiscence of the primitive reeds tied together at intervals, and crowned with the lotus bud, is found in the later granite column and capital (No. 10 L, M). During the Theban kingdom especially (B.C. 3000-3. c. 2100), examples in stone of capitals and columns derived from timber and reed originals are frequent. At Beni-Hasan some pillars represent a bundle of four reeds or lotus stalks bound together near the top and bulging above the ligature, so as to form a capital, in imitation of a lotus bud. Such a pier must evidently have been originally employed in wooden architecture only, and the roof which it supports, in this instance, represents a light wooden construction having the slight slope necessary in the dry Egyptian climate. This type of column was largely used in later Egyptian times in a more substantial lithic form (No. 10 M), and in conjunction with the hollow-formed capital of the bell type (No. 10 L), of which the earliest example appeared in the eighteenth dynasty. In fact, throughout, although materials changed, the forms of the early reed and clay construction were adhered to ; and the endeavour of the conservative Egyptian was to reproduce in stone and granite, superimposed in layers, the appearance assumed in the early reed and mud type. The surface decoration executed on the later granite buildings (No. 10 p), apparently came from the " sgraffito" (incised plaster) work on the earlier mud walls. The surfaces of such walls could not be modelled or carved with projections of high relief, but their flat surfaces, when plastered, provided an admirable field for decora- tion and for instruction through the use of hieroglyphics. The -punorísorq et ur Spiirerdcg em QUA "oxIv9 “xxmag ant + *EHNILOTLIHONV NVILIADA EGYPTIAN ARCHITECTURE. 15 Egyptian system of decoration consisted in not contravening the form adopted, but in clothing it with a kind of drapery more or less rich, which never presented a projecting outline, contenting itself with enveloping the geometric form as would an embroidered stuff, or a diapered covering. Remarkable then as were the arts of Egypt, it is clear that the spirit of criticism and logical method were wanting ; and that traditional forms, hallowed by long use, were clung to and repro- duced when the method of building which suggested them had been replaced by other systems. Egyptian art proceeded on an unin- terrupted line or course of tradition, and when necessity dictated a change in the methods of construction, or in the materials, the immutable form was not thereby affected, but was perpetuated in spite of novel conditions. The principal remains of ancient Egyptian architecture are the Pyramids, or royal tombs of the kings, and the temples, a contrast in this respect with Assyria, where the palaces of the kings are the chief remains. The Egyptian wali-paintings, sculptures, jewellery, bronze implements and utensils, which have been unearthed from their temples or tombs, show that the race had attained to a high degree in art. As regards the architec- ture, the impression given to the mind of the spectator is that these buildings were erected for eternity, all the remains having a character of immense solidity, and usually of grand uniformity. The Pyramids (Nos. 4 and 5) are the most extravagant of all ancient buildings in many ways. The relative return in impressiveness and the higher beauties of the art is small when compared with the amount of labour, expense, and material used in their erection. The finishing and fitting of such large masses of granite is remarkable, for many of the blocks, perfectly squared, polished and fitted, are at least 20 feet long by 6 feet wide. The method of quarrying and of transportation for long distances by land and water, and the raising of these blocks of stone into position, is even now uncertain, although M. Choisy in his latest work (see Reference Books, page 30) has produced many probable theories. The Architectural Character of the temples is striking and characteristic (Nos. 5, 7 and 8). The buildings decrease in height from front to back, presenting a disconnected collection of various sized structures, often built at different times, and thus forming a direct contrast to the harmonious whole of a Greek temple, which is all comprised within one "order" of columns, and which is distinctly, both in appearance and reality, one building. The character of the tombs consists in the planning of their mysterious chambers and corridors, which, covered with paintings and hieroglyphics, produce an effect of gloom and solemnity on the spectator. l8 COMPARATIVE ARCHITECTURE. gives access first slopes downwards, and afterwards re-ascends towards the heart of the pyramid, where the King's Chamber is situated. In this chamber, which is 34 feet 6 inches by 17 feet and 19 feet high, was placed the sarcophagus of the king contain- ing his embalmed body. The upper part is elaborately con- structed with stones one above the other (No. 5 D), and the entrance is protected by a massive stone acting as a portcullis, fitting into a rebate or recess, and weighing from 50 to 60 tons. Two air channels, each about 8 inches by 6 inches, led to the ~? outer face of the pyramid for ventilation. There were two other chambers in the Great Pyramid, one known as the Queen's Chamber, connected with a passage leading off that to the King's Chamber, and the other below the ground. The exterior of this pyramid was originally cased with a sloping face of limestone, but this has now disappeared,'showing the original stepped surface in tiers of 4 feet, on which the casing was placed, and which still exists in the Pyramid of Mycerinos. TOMBS. Besides the Pyramids or royal tombs are others for private individuals. (a.) In the Ancient Empire the Mastabas, probably derived from rude heaps of stones piled up over earlier mummy holes, were rectangular structures, with sides sloping at an angle of 75 degrees, and having flat roofs. They were divided into three parts : i. The outer chamber, in which were placed the offerings to the " Ka " or " double," having its walls decorated with representations of festal and other scenes, which are valuable from an historical standpoint. ii. Inner secret chambers, known as the " serdabs," containing statues of the deceased, and members of his family. iii. A well of great depth, leading to the chamber containing the sarcophagus with its mummy. The Mastaba of Thy, Sakkara, is well preserved and has been restored. It dates from the fifth dynasty, and was erected to Thy, who in his day held the position of royal architect and manager of pyramids. It consists of a small vestibule, beyond which is a large court where offerings to the deceased took place, and from which a mummy shaft led through a passage to a tomb chamber. The masonry of this tomb is carefully jointed and covered with flat reliefs, which are generally considered the best specimens of their kind. The principal reliefs are in a second tomb chamber, 22 feet 9 inches by 23 feet 9 inches and 12 feet 6 inches high. These reliefs represent harvest operations, ship- building scenes, scenes representing the arts and crafts of the o - O Ll 6 o C 2 20 COMPARATIVE ARCHITECTURE. period, the slaughtering of sacrificial animals, and Thy himself sailing through the marshes in a boat with a surrounding papyrus thicket. (b.) In the Middle Empire tombs \vere either of the Pyramidal form, as at Abydos, or were rock-cut, as in the vertical cliffs bounding the Nile valley (No. 6). The Tombs at Beni-Hasan,in Upper Egypt, form a remark- able group of these rock-cut examples. There are 39 in all, arranged in a row in the rocks as shown (No. 6). They were made during the twelfth dynasty (B.C. 2778-^565), a period which was particularly remarkable for the progress of the arts of peace. The entrance to the Tomb of Khnemhotep, known as Tomb No. 3, has two sixteen-sided columns, sometimes considered to be a prototype of the Greek Doric order. These are slightly fluted and have an entasis, and the deeply projecting cornice has stone beams carved out of the solid rock, indicating a derivation from a wooden origin. (c.) During the New Empire.tombs were rock-cut and structural, and in many cases accompanied by sepulchral temples. Thebes, which for a time was the necropolis of the Egyptian kings, has a large number of tombs dating mostly from the New Empire, and forming a contrast to the pyramids which formed the graves of the earlier kings. These tombs consist of a series of chambers connected with passages hewn in the rock, and were intended only for the reception of the sarcophagi. Amongst the most important of these are those of Rameses III., IV., and IX., and that of Sethos L, usually known as Belzoni's tomb from its discoverer in 1817. The structure of all is very similar, consist- ing of three corridors cut in the rock leading into an ante-room, beyond which is the sepulchral chamber, where the granite sarcophagus was placed in a hollow in the floor. The walls, from the entrance to the sarcophagus chamber, were sculptured with hieroglyphics of pictures and texts necessary to the deceased in the future life, and mostly representing him sailing through the under-world accompanied by the sun god. The texts were mostly taken from various books relating to the ceremonies which were essential for insuring the immortality of the departed. The mortuary or sepulchral temples, such as those of Der-el- bahri, Medinet-Habou, the Ramesseum, and others, were utilized for offerings and other funereal rights for the dead. TEMPLES. The purposes for which they were used and their component parts are important. They were sanctuaries where only the king and priests penetrated, and in which mysteries and processions formed a great part of the religious services. They differ, “SULUIM[07) USaAJSG SUGGIIS MO] 1940 poyjrupu IqHi SuLmows “oon1og 'NOdAM 1Y NIAKAT, 24 COMPARATIVE ARCHITECTURE. The Great Temple of Ammon, Karnac, is the grandest, \ extending over an area of 1,200 feet by 360 feet, and originally \ was connected with the Temple of Luxor by an avenue of sphinxes. It was not built on an original plan, but owes its size, disposition and magnificence to the additions of many later kings, from the first monarchs of the twelfth dynasty down to the Ptolemaic period. It has six pylons added in successive genera- tions, a great court measuring 338 feet by 275 feet, the great hypostyle hall, and other halls, courts and/ a sanctuary. The Hypostyle hall measures 338 feet by 170 /feet, covering about the same area as Notre Dame, Paris. The roof is supported by 134 columns in sixteen rows. The central avenues are about 80 feet in height as compared with 140 feet at Amiens Cathedral, and have columns 69 feet high and nf feet in diameter, the capitals of which are of the lotus blossom type (No. 10 L) so as to receive the light from the" clerestory. The side avenues are about 46 feet high and have columns 42 feet 6 inches in height and 9 feet in diameter, the Capitals being of the lojus t>u.<J type, on which the clerestory light would fall. The impression pro- duced on the spectator by the forest of columns is most awe- inspiring, and the eye is led from the smaller columns of the side avenues, which gradually vanish into semi-darkness, giving an idea of unlimited size, to the larger columns of the central avenues lighted by the clerestory, which is formed in the differ- ence of height between the central and side avenues, a form of lighting more fully developed in the Gothic period. The walls of the hall, the column shafts, and the architraves are covered with incised inscriptions, still retaining their original colored decora- tions relating to the gods and personages concerned in the erection of the structure. The Temple of Sethos I., Abydos, was dedicated to Osiris and other deities of Abydos. It was built by Sethos I. (B.C. 1366-1333), and completed by Rameses II. (B.C. 1333-1300). The walls are of fine grained limestone, and the reliefs on them are among the finest Egyptian sculptures. In common with other temples it has pylons, a first and second fore-court and two hypostyle halls, but instead of one sanctuary it has seven arranged side by side, dedicated to six deities and a deified king ; hence the front of this temple was divided into seven parts, each with its separate gateway and portal. The seven sanctuaries are each roofed by means of horizontal courses, every course project- ing beyond that immediately below, and the undersides afterwards rounded off in the form of a vault by the chisel. It further differs from others in having a wing at right angles to the main structure in consequence of a hill immediately behind the temple. The Great Temple of Abu-Simbel, built by Rameses II. (B.C. 1333-1300), is one of the most stupendous creations of EGYPTIAN ARCHITECTURE. 25 Egyptian architecture, and was entirely excavated out of the solid rock. It has a fore-court, at the back of which is the imposing facade, 119 feet wide and over 100 feet high, formed as a pylon, and having four seated colossi of Rameses II., each over 65 feet in height. The entrance leads to a vestibule, the ceiling of which is supported by eight pillars, the walls having vividly colored reliefs. Eight smaller chambers, probably used to store the temple utensils and furniture, adjoin this vestibule, and in the rear is a small hypostyle hall, 36 feet by 25 feet, having four pillars. Behind this is a long narrow chamber out of which are three apartments, the centre and largest one being the sanctuary, with an altar and four seated figures of the deities worshipped. The Temple of Isis, Island of Philse, is an interesting example of the Ptolemaic period, and, like earlier examples, was the work of several generations. The fore-court, entered through a massive pylon, 150 feet broad and 60 feet high, has on the west side the Birth House, a small colonnaded temple dedicated to Hathor-Isis and to the memory of the birth of her son Horus, and on the east a colonnaded building used by the priests. On the fourth side of the court is the second pylon, which is 105 feet broad and 40 feet high. Beyond is the temple proper, consisting of courts, a hypostyle hall with eight columns, two small vesti- bules, a sanctuary, and other adjoining chambers, all nearly in total darkness. This group, including the second pylon, has its axis at an angle to that of the first pylon and courtyard. The entire structure has the walls, both inside and out, covered with inscriptions. The Temple of Hathor, Dendera (A.D. first century), is another Ptolemaic example, but was not completed till the reign of Augustus. It has no pylons, fore-court, or enclosing outer walls, but has a great vestibule with twenty-four columns, six of which form the fa9ade, having low screen walls between them on either side of the central entrance. Behind this is the hypostyle hall, having six columns with elaborate Hathor-headed capitals. On each side of this hall and beyond are chambers, used as lavatory, treasury, store-rooms ; and behind are two ante-chambers with a sanctuary beyond. Staircases on either side lead to the roof of the temple. During the Graeco-Roman period many temples were erected, of which the Temple of Edfou, commenced by Ptolemy III. (B.C. 237), is the best preserved example. A massive pylon, faced with reliefs and inscriptions, gave access to a great court, surrounded by a colonnade. The back of this court was formed by the front of the great hypostyle hall, the portal of which was the centre intercolumniation of a row of six columns, the narrower spaces between the side columns having low screen walls (No. 8). Twelve larger columns with elaborate capitals support 28 COMPARATIVE ARCHITECTURE. 4. COMPARATIVE. A. Plans. The temples have already been slightly compared with Greek examples (pages 15 and 22), and as already noticed they were especially planned for internal effect. The hypostyle hall seemingly unlimited in size, crowded with pillars, and mysteriously illuminated from above, realized the grandest con- ceptions of Egyptian planning (No. 5). Externally the massive pylons ornamented with incised decorations formed the chief facade, a contrast being obtained by the /slender obelisks which usually stood in front of them, while the approach was through an impressive avenue of innumerable sphinxes. The erection of these temples was in progress during many centuries by means of continual additions. In this respect they resemble the growth of English cathedrals ; as also in the disregard for symmetry in the planning of one part in relation to another. This may be seen in many of the later temples erected under the Ptolemys, the temple on the island of Philae being a notable instance. The walls, the pylons, and other features are placed on different axes, free from any pretence of regularity. The freedom and picturesqueness of grouping thus obtained is remarkable. B. Walls. These were immensely thick, and in important buildings were of granite, while in the less important they were of brick faced with granite. The faces of the temple walls slope inwards or batter towards the top, giving them a massive appearance (No. 7). Viollet-le- Duc traces this inclination to the employment of mud for the walls of early buildings. Columns which form the leading features of Greek external architecture are not found on the exterior of Egyp- tian buildings, which have normally a massive blank wall crowned with a characteristic cornice, consisting of a large hollow and roll moulding (No. 10 j, M). For the purposes of decoration, the walls, even when of granite, were generally covered with a fine plaster, in which were executed low reliefs, treated with bright color (Nos. 7 and 10 P). Simplicity, solidity, and grandeur, qualities obtained by broad masses of unbroken walling, are the chief characteristics of the style. c. Openings. These were all square-headed and covered with massive lintels, for the style being essentially trabeated, the arch appears to have been but little used. Window openings are seldom found in temples, light being admitted by the clerestories in the earlier examples at Thebes, or over the low dwarf walls between the columns of the front row, as at Luxor, Edfou (No. 8), Dendera, or Philae, a method peculiar to the Ptolemaic and Roman periods. D. Roofs. These were composed of massive blocks of stone supported by the enclosing walls and the closely spaced columns EGYPTIAN ARCHITECTURE. 2Q (No. 5 F). Being flat, they could be used in dwelling-houses (No. 9) as a pleasant rendezvous for the family in the evening for the enjoyment of the view and the fresh breezes which spring up at sunset, and at certain seasons may have been used for repose. They may also have been used in the daytime, if protected from the sun by temporary awnings. The flat roofs of the temples seem to have been used in the priestly processions. In the rock- cut temples the ceilings are sometimes slightly arched in form, and as at the tombs at Beni-Hasan, the roofing is made to represent timber construction (No. 6). E. Columns. The papyrus, a tall, smooth reed, and the lotus, a large white water-lily of exquisite beauty, offered many sugges- tions. The columns, seldom over sijL-dia TTlf^PT -ip hejgbj-, were made to represent the stalks, and at intervals appear to be tied by bands (No. 10). The capitals_wej^_mostly derived from the_Jptus plant (No. 10 D, E, F),"as follows: ~"~(^-) The lotus bud, conventionalized, tied round by stalks (No. 10 M). (b.) The fully-grown lotus flower, which formed a bell-shaped capital, sculptured or ornamented with color decoration (No. 10 L). (c.) The " palm" capital, the main outline of the palms being painted or sculptured (No. 10 K). In addition, the Isis or Hathor-headed capital, as at Dendera and Philae, is formed of heads of the goddess Isis, supporting the model of a pylon (No. 10 G). F. Mouldings. These were few, viz., the hollow and bead generally used in conjunction, but the bead was also used by itself. The two combined invariably crowned the upper part of the pylons (Nos. 7 and 10 j, M), and walls. G. Ornament (No. 10). This was symbolical, and was an important element in the style, including such features as the solar disc or globe and the vulture with outspread wings (No. 10 N), as a symbol of protection, while diaper patterns, spirals (No. 10 A, B) and the feather ornament (No. 10 c) were largely used. The scarab, or sacred beetle, was considered by the Egyptians as the sign of their religion, much in the same way as the cross became the symbol of Christianity. It probably attained its sacred character as the emblem of resurrection because of its habit of allowing the sun to hatch its eggs from a pellet of refuse. It must be remembered that the decoration of the walls of a temple consisted largely in acts of adoration on the part of the monarch to his gods, to whose protection he ascribed all his warlike successes. The Egyptians were masters in the use of color, chiefly using the primary ones blue, red, and yellow. The wall to be decorated was prepared as follows : (a) It was first chiselled smooth and covered with a thin layer of plaster or cement, 3O COMPARATIVE ARCHITECTURE. after which a colored wash was put over the whole, (b) The figures or hieroglyphics were then drawn on with a red line by an artist, being corrected with a black line by the chief artist ; (c) the sculptor next incised the outline, rounding slightly the inclosed form towards its boundaries ; (d) the painter then executed his work in the strong hues of the primary colors. (See the Egyptian Court at the Crystal Palace.) The hieroglyphics were often, how- ever, incised direct on the granite and then colored, as may be seen on the sculptures at the British Museum. They are instruc- tive as well as decorative, and from then! is learnt most of what is known of Egyptian history (No. 10 p). The Egyptians possessed great power of conventionalizing natural objects such as the lotus plant, the symbol of fertility and abundance, produced by the overflowing Nile, the palm, the papyrus, and others, each being copied as the motif for a design, being treated by the artists in a way suitable to the material in which they were working. The distinguishing, or essential, feature of the natural object, or its class, thus passed by a process of idealizing into forms adapted for ornamentation. 5. REFERENCE BOOKS. Champollion (J. F., le jeune). " Monuments de l'gypte et de la Nubie." 6 vols., folio. Paris, 1845. Choisy (A.). "L'art debatir chezles Egyptians." Imp.Svo. Paris, 1904. " Description de l'gypte" (known as " Napoleon's Egypt "). 23 vols., large folio. Paris, 1809-1822. Erman (A.). " Life in Ancient Egypt." 8vo. 1894. Herz(M.). "Mosqueedu Sultan Hassan au Caire." Folio. Cairo, 1899. Lepsius (R.). " Denkmaeler aus Aegypten und Aethiopien." 12 vols., large folio, and i vol. text. Berlin, 1849-1859. Maspero (G.). "The Dawn of 'Civilization." 8vo. 1897. Perrot and Chipiez. " History of Art in Ancient Egypt." 8vo. 1883. Petrie (W. N. F.). " The Pyramids and Temples of Gizeh." 410. 1883. Petrie. " Ten Years Digging in Egypt." 8vo. 1 892. Petrie. " Egyptian Decorative Art." 8vo." 1895. Prisse d'Avennes (E.). "Histoire de 1'Art gyptien." 2 vols., large folio, and text in 4to. Paris, 1879. Rawlinson (G.). " History of Ancient Egypt." 2 vols., 8vo. 1881. Smyth (C. Piazzi). " Life and Work at the Great Pyramid, 1865." 3 vols., 8vo. Edinburgh, 1867. Publications of the " Archaeological Survey of Egypt " and the " Egypt Exploration Fund." Ebers (G.). "An Egyptian Princess." (Historical Novel.) Haggard (H. Rider)." Cleopatra." Ward (T.). " The Sacred Beetle." Demy 8vo. 1902. The Egyptian Court at the Crystal Palace and the Egyptian Rooms at the British Museum give a good idea of the Architecture and decoration of the style. The latter place contains a most complete collection of Egyptian antiquities, which will give the student a better knowledge of the style than can be gleaned merely from books. WESTERN ASIATIC ARCHITECTURE. 33 Pyramids and other early structures were near the delta of the Nile. In Western Asia the march of civilization spread north- wards from Babylon (the Gate of God) to Nineveh, while in Egypt it spread southwards from Memphis to Philse, but in both cases it developed from the sea inland. ii. Geological. The whole district of Chaldaea or Lower Mesopotamia is alluvial, being formed of the thick mud or clay deposited by the two great rivers Tigris and Euphrates. The soil, containing no stone and bearing no trees, could be made into bricks, which thus became the usual building material. The general body of the walls was constructed of the ordinary sun- dried bricks, while " kiln-burnt " and sometimes glazed or vitrified bricks of different colors were used as a facing. As a cementing material, bitumen or pitch, applied in a heated state, seems to have been used, being obtained from bitumen springs found in the district, as at Is, on the Euphrates. Mortar, made of calcareous earth, was used in the latest periods. In Assyria, where stone was not scarce, the walls were also faced, internally and externally, with alabaster or limestone slabs, on which were carved the bas-reliefs or inscriptions, which are so important from an historical point of view. iii. Climate. The unhealthy exhalations from the vast swamps in Chaldaea, and the swarms of aggressive and venomous insects infesting the entire region during the long summer, rendered the construction of elevated platforms for the towns and palaces not only desirable, but almost essential. Moreover, the floods during the rainy season, when torrents fell for weeks at a time, further demanded the need for such structures. Persia is for the most part a high tableland and has been described as a country of sunshine, gardens, and deserts, with a climate ranging from the extremes of heat and cold. iv. Religion. The people were worshippers of the heavenly bodies, such as the sun and the moon, and of the powers of nature, such as the wind and thunder. Numbers of omen tablets have survived, and bear witness to the extreme superstition which existed. Ormuzd, the god of light and of good, as opposed to Ahriman, the god of darkness and evil, was worshipped with fire as his symbol. Temples, and even images, do not seem to have been necessary, as sacrifices and the worship of fire and sun appear to have been conducted in the open air, and thus the essential stimulus was wanting for the rise and development of religious art. On the other hand, the man-headed bulls, placed at the entrances of temples and palaces, probably had a mythical mean- ing, and appear to belong to the class of beneficent genii or to that of the great deities of the Chaldaean pantheon. v. Social and Political. Judging from their history, the F.A. D 34 COMPARATIVE ARCHITECTURE. Assyrians were a sturdy, warlike, but cruel people, and in their battles the conquering monarchs took thousands of prisoners, who were employed in raising the enormous mounds mentioned here- after. It has been calculated by-Rawlinson that the erection of the great plat orm or mound of Koyunjik upon which the build- ings of Nineveh stood would require the united exertions of 10,000 men for twelve years, after which the palaces would have to be built. The Assyrian sculptures give in a very /ninute way the social conditions of the period, and show us the" costumes of the time and the military character of the period, for'the long inscriptions and series of pictures with which the palace walls were covered form an illustrated history of the battles and sieges of succeeding monarchs, the sculptor thus explaining the political events of the period in a lasting manner. The cuneiform or wedge-shaped characters which form the inscriptions consist of groups of strokes placed in different positions. These characters were impressed on clay tablets or cylinders, while still moist, with a triangular ended instrument of wood, bone, or metal. Libraries of these strange MSS. were formed on a large scale, and by the translation of these inscriptions much knowledge of the social condition has been acquired. The Persian astronomer-poet, Omar Khayyam, in his writings, indicates the national love of beauty and the influence exerted by environment and climate. vi. Historical. From the study of Assyrian history can be gleaned certain facts which considerably assist in forming the divisions of the periods. The earliest Babylonian king mentioned in the cuneiform inscriptions was Eannadu, who reigned B.C. 4500, and the empire he founded was gradually extended northwards, following the course of the great river Tigris. In B.C. 1700 Assyria, the northern part of the early Babylonian empire, asserted her independence and became the great power of Western Asia. Of the Assyrian kings, the most celebrated was Sargon (B.C. 722-705), who erected the great palace at Khorsabad ; he was the first Assyrian king who came in contact with the Egyptian army, then in alliance with the Philistines, a combina- tion of forces which he defeated. The Assyrians conquered and occupied Egypt in B.C. 672, sacking the ancient city of Thebes in B.C. 666 ; but the Egyptians finally shook themselves free from the Assyrian yoke. The destruction of Nineveh took place in B.C. 609, and the great Assyrian kingdom was then divided among its conquerors, Assyria being handed over to the Medes. Babylon then took the leading place until it was finally conquered by the Persians, a hardy race from the mountainous district north of the Persian Gulf, under Cyrus, in B.C. 539. The reigns of Darius (B.C. 521-485; and Xerxes (B.C. 485- 465) are important as being WESTERN ASIATIC ARCHITECTURE. 35 those in which some of the most interesting palaces were erected at Susa and Persepolis. The country remained under the rule of the Persians until the time of Alexander the Great, B.C. 333, when it became a possession of the Greeks. The conquest of Egypt by Cambyses, B.C. 525, and the dazzling impression left by the marvellous buildings of Memphis and Thebes, caused the development of the use of the column amongst the Persians. In the seventh century A. D., the Arabs overran the country and settled there Bagdad becoming a new capital of great magnificence. Towards the close of the tenth century, the Turks, a barbarous people pouring in from the east, settled in the country, which is at the present moment in a desolate state owing to Turkish misrule. 2. ARCHITECTURAL CHARACTER. The banks of the Tigris and Euphrates presented only alluvial plains, where wood suitable for building was rare. The country, however, possessed an abundance of clay, which, being com- pressed in flat square moulds and dried in the sun, was the material of which were formed the huge platforms upon which temples and palaces were built. These immense plat- forms were at first faced with sun-dried bricks, and sub- sequently with kiln-burnt bricks, or in the later Assyrian period with stone slabs from the mountains that separate Assyria from Media. It will be perceived how the salient characteristics of the architecture may be explained by the nature of the materials at hand, for the walls being of brick, each unit, in general, was a repetition of its neighbour, and rarely of special shape. The buildings thus constructed could only be decorated by attached ornament, similar in principle to the mats and hangings spread over floors 'or -walls as a covering, for the Assyrians either cased their walls with alabaster or with a skin of glazed brickwork of many colors. The arch was applied to important openings (No. 12) and also to vaults. In some cases it was not a true arch, but one formed by corbelling or projecting horizontal courses. The true arch however was also practised, being probably accidentally hit upon through the use of small units ; for as the Chaldaeans were unable to support walls over openings upon beams of stone or timber, owing to the lack of these materials in suitable forms, they had to devise some other means for doing so. It is a general law, which study and comparison will confirm, that the arch was earliest discovered and most invariably employed by those builders who found them- selves condemned by the geological formation of their country to the employment of the smallest units. Arches, therefore, in the absence of piers, rested on thick and D 2 ASSYRIAN EXAMPLES. OT CONSTRUCTION . mmi m waa&ie*, SOUTH E^ST 12. WESTERN ASIATIC ARCHITECTURE. 39 receding terraces, and each of different colored glazed bricks. A walled inclosure surrounded the whole structure. The angles of these temples were made to face the cardinal points, in contrast to the Egyptian pyramids, whose sides were so placed. The attempts of the Babylonians to build a tower which should " reach to heaven " (Gen. xi. 4), may be referred to here, and it is a fact worth noting that in Western Asia and Egypt, countries both remarkable for their dulness and sameness of aspect, man should have attempted his highest flights of audacity in the way of artificial elevations. THE SECOND OR ASSYRIAN PERIOD was a palace -biiUding epoch, and terminated with the destruction of Babylon by Cyrus, B.C. 539. The principal remains are the palaces at Nineveh (or Koyunjik), Nimroud, and Khorsabad. The Palace of Sargon, Khorsabad (B.C. 722-705), is the best example of the general type, and has been the most completely studied by means of systematic excavations, chiefly by Place. It was erected about nine miles north- north-east of the ancient city of Nineveh, and with its various courts, chambers, and corridors is supposed to have occupied an area of 25 acres. As in all Assyrian palaces, it was raised upon a terrace or platform of brickwork faced with stone, 46 feet above the plain, from which it was reached by means of broad stairways and sloping planes or ramps. The palace contained three distinct groups of apartments, corresponding to the divisions of any palatial residence of modern Persia, Turkey, or India, viz. : (a.) The Seraglio, including the palace proper, the men's apartments, ajid the reception rooms for visitors, in all containing 10 courts, and no less than 60 rooms or passages ; (&.) the Harem, with the private apartments of the prince and his family ; and (c.) the Khan or service chambers, arranged round an immense courtyard, having an area of about 2| acres, and form- ing the principal court of the palace. There was also a temple observatory on the western side of the platform. The great entrance portals on the south-east facade led into the great court already mentioned. These portals formed probably the most impressive creations of Assyrian Architecture, and were rendered imposing by no fewer than ten human-headed winged bulls, 19 feet in height (No. 12 F, G, H), examples of which are now pre- served in the British Museum. In the principal apartments a sculptured dado of alabaster about 10 feet high, which seems to have been sometimes treated with color, lined the lower portions of the walls, above which was a continuous frieze of colored and glazed brickwork. Conjectural restorations have been made by various authorities (No. 12 B). 40 COMPARATIVE ARCHITECTURE. The excavations of the Palace of Sennacherib, Nineveh, B.C. 705-681, and the Palace of Ashur-nasir-pal, Nimroud, B.C. 885-860, have revealed a large amount of information concerning Assyrian Palaces, and many of the sculptures with which the walls were lined are now in the British Museum. The method of roofing is still much in dispute. Some authorities hold that the long and narrow rooms were roofed with beams of poplar or palm, resting upon the summits of the walls, and that the large halls would have a central portion open to the sky, with porticos around, similar to that of a Roman atrium. Other autho- rities hold that the arch, which was used largely in the drains and water channels of the great platforms and in the city gates (No. 12 F), also played an important part in the construction of the palaces themselves, specially in view of the thickness of the walls, which would indicate that the architect had to provide solid abutments for arched vaults which supported a heavy roof. From a bas-relief found by Layard, it would appear that domed roofs both spherical and elliptical were also employed. THE THIRD OR PERSIAN PERIOD, from the time of Cyrus to that of Alexander the Great, has important remains of palaces, tombs and temples, at Susa, Persepolis, and Passagardae. The Persians having no architecture of their own, proceeded to adapt that of the conquered Assyrians, as later the Romans assimilated that of the Greeks. In the neighbourhood of their new cities, Susa and Persepolis, good stone was to be found, and, as a consequence, many architectural features, which are wanting in the earlier periods, are still extant. Persepolis, one of the important capitals of Persia, has inte- resting remains of no less than eight different buildings. These were erected on a great platform, 1,500 feet long by 1,000 feet wide, of four different levels, partly cut out of the solid rock and partly built up. It was from 20 to 50 feet above the plain and was reached by a wide stairway on the western side. The most important buildings erected by Darius are his Palace and the Hall of the Hundred Columns, while his son Xerxes built the Propylsea, the Hypostyle Hall and a famous palace. The Hall of the Hundred Columns, 225 feet square, was probably used as an audience and throne-hall. It was surrounded by a brick wall, 10 feet 8 inches thick, in which were forty- four stone doorways and windows. The bas-reliefs are on a magnificent scale, representing the king surrounded by the arms of subject states, receiving ambassadors, rows of warriors and other subjects. The columns, of which only one is still in situ, had capitals of curious vertical WESTERN ASIATIC ARCHITECTURE. 43 B. Walls. The Assyrians in the early period used stone only as a facing to their brick walls, forming a contrast with the solid marble work of the Greeks, and with the constructive use of stone and granite by the Egyptians. In Assyria, the massive walls, which were of cased brickwork, only remain, the columns being of wood having perished. In Persia, however, the walls which were thin have disappeared, leaving the massive stone or marble blocks forming the door and window openings, immense columns, and broad stairways which alone have survived the ravages of time. The slabs of alabaster with which the walls of the palaces were faced reveal much of the social history of the people, and many of the slabs are now in the British Museum (No. 13). c. Openings. The lighting to the temples is conjectural, but it appears to have been effected by means of a "clerestory" (No. 12 B), somewhat similar to that in use in the Egyptian temples. It is believed that the Assyrian architects counted chiefly on the doorways, which were of great size, to give their buildings a sufficient supply of light and air, and openings may also have been formed in the upper parts of the walls. The use of the arch, both circular and pointed, was practised by the Assyrians, as is proved by the discoveries of Sir Henry Layard at Nimroud, and of M. Place at Khorsabad (No. I2F, G, H), where semi-circular arches spring from the backs of winged bulls with human heads. D. Roofs. The roofing appears to have been effected by means of timber beams reaching from one column to the next, and resting on the backs of the "double-bull" capitals (No. 12 B). Some authorities consider that the halls of the palaces were covered with brick tunnel vaults, but in many cases the roof of con- siderable thickness was flat, formed of very tough but plastic clay and debris, and kept in condition by being occasionally rolled, as in modern eastern houses. Perrot and Chipiez, however, are of opinion that Assyrian builders made use of domes in addition to barrel vaults, because of the discovery of a bas-relief at Koyunjik in which groups of buildings roofed with spherical or elliptical domes are shown. Strabo (xvi. i. 5) also mentions expressly that all the houses of Babylon were vaulted. E. Columns. These were primarily of wood, but in the later period at Persepolis, the Persians, on their return from Egypt, built them of the natural stone which had been wanting in Chaldsea. They were not so massive as in Egypt, where stone roofs had to be supported. The capitals were characteristic, being of the "double-bull," . " double-unicorn," " double-horse " or " double-griffen " type (No. 13 A, c), and the Ionic scroll occurs in some examples. F. Mouldings. As in the case of Egypt, in Western Asia 44 COMPARATIVE ARCHITECTURE. the use of mouldings does not appear to have advanced to any great extent. In the Assyrian palaces the sculptured slabs and colored surfaces took their place. At Persepolis the bead, hollow and ogee mouldings may be noticed in the bases, while the volutes of the capital were treated with plain sinkings. G. Ornament. The Assyrian sculptures in alabaster exhibit considerable technical skill and refinement, while the repousse pattern work on bronze bowls, shields, and gate fittings is also notable. From the decorative treatment of Assyrian architecture can be traced much of the peculiar and characteristic detail used by the Greeks, and on the sculptured slabs (No. 13 B, F. H), already mentioned at Nimroud and Nineveh, are represented buildings with columns and capitals of Ionic and Corinthian form in embryo. Further, it may be said, that Greece took from Assyria the idea of the sculptured friezes, the colored decorations, and the honeysuckle (No. 12 j) and guilloche ornaments, the latter being seen in a pavement slab from the palace at Nineveh (Koyunjik), now in the British Museum. In the next chapter it will be seen that Greece adopted much of her decorative art from the preceding styles of Egypt and Western Asia, which are thus of extreme interest in enabling the evolution of architectural forms from the earlier periods to be traced. 5. REFERENCE BOOKS. Dieulafoy (M.). "L'Art Antique de la Perse." 5 vols., folio. Paris, 1884-1889. Flandin (E.) et Coste (P.)-" Voyage en Perse." 6 vols., folio. Paris, 1844-1854. Layard (A. H.). " Monuments of Nineveh." 2 vols., folio. 1853. Layard. " Nineveh and its Palaces." 2 vols., 8vo. 1849. Perrot and Chipiez. " History of Art in Chaldasa and Assyria, Persia, Phrygia, and Judaea." 5 vols., 8vo. 1884-1892. Place (Victor). " Ninive et L'Assyrie." 3 vols., large folio. Paris, 1867-1870. Ragozin (Z. A). " Chaldea." 8vo. 1888. (A most interesting account of the people and their history.) Texier (C.). " L'Armenie, la Perse, et la Mesopotamie." 2 vols., large folio. Paris, 1842-1852. Whyte-Melville. "Sarchedon" (Historical Novel). A visit to the Assyrian galleries and basement of the British Museum will afford much interest and information to the student and will impress him with the dignity and importance of the style. 14. GREEK ARCHITECTURE. " Fair Greece ! sad relic of departed worth ! Immortal, though no more ; though fallen, great ! " BYRON. " AnH downward thence to latest days The heritage of beauty fell ; And Grecian forms and Grecian lays Prolonged, their humanising spell, Till when new worlds for man to win The Atlantic riven waves disclose, The wildernesses there begin To blossom with the Grecian rose." LORD HOUGHTON. i. INFLUENCES. i. Geographical. A reference to the map of Greece (No. 14) shows a country surrounded on three sides by the sea, possessed of many natural harbours, and convenient for the development of trade. By means of these havens .the Phoenician merchants in early times carried on commerce with the country. The influence of the sea in fostering national activity should not be forgotten an influence to which Great Britain owes her present position. Again, the mountainous character of the country, with scarcely a road until Roman times, was calculated to isolate the inhabitants into small groups, and together with the tempting proximity of a whole multitude of islands, was instrumental in producing a hardy and adventurous people, who might be expected to make good colonists. ii. Geological. In Greece the principal mineral product was marble, the most monumental building material in existence, and one which favours purity of line and refinement in detail. This material is found in great abundance in various parts of Greece, e.g., in the mountains of Hymettus and Pentelicus, a few miles
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